Analysis of using controlled slow cooling

Analysis of using controlled slow cooling To get the reproducible outcomes in biomedical research, genetic stability is essential and it is achieved via cryopreservation technique. Technique of cryopreservation involves the preservation of viable cells, living tissues, gametes, embryos, organs and also some organisms on cooling at low sub-zero temperatures, characteristically at -196Â °C for a prolonged time to implement the applications of these biological materials over biomedicine, conservation and animal reproduction (Mazur., 1970). Long time storage is achieved by using this technique (Pereira and Marques., 2008).The cryopreservation technique is carried out in two different ways: Vitrification and 2. Controlled slow cooling (Frederickson., 2000). To proceed with these two protocols, several steps need to be taken and also we must look its advantages and limitations. Alteration in temperature induces main two damages Freezing injury and chilling injury and these injuries are reduced greatly by using the cryoprotectant. Detailed analysis of these and its role in both vitrification and slow cooling techniques is described below (Fuller et al., 2004). TWO APPROACHES OF CRYOPRESERVATION: VITRIFICATION: Preservation of biological materials under hypothermic condition with devoid of freezing is called as vitrification (Rall, W. F. and Fahy., 1985). Vitrification induce glassy formation instead of formation of ice crystal, thus it is not causing essential damage to the living system (Fuller et al., 2004). SLOW COOLING: Preserving cells from room temperature upto the temperature of liquid nitrogen is called as slow cooling. Damage associated with this are reduced using cryoprotectant (Gao and Critse., 2004 and Guan et al., 2008). MAJOR DAMAGES ASSOCIATED WITH THIS TECHNIQUE: During cryopreservation, major injury that induces damage to the cell survival is: Freezing injury Chilling injury. (Gao and Critser., (2000). FREEZING INJURY: with the significant preservation at hypothermic temperature, water becomes solidify and it causes the cell damage, even to unviability. (Fuller et al., 2004). Freezing injury TZ p3 This diagram is reproduced from the material belongs to (Ashwood-Smith and Farrant., 1980). At high rate of freezing, ice nucleation provokes. Most cells has thermodynamic freezing point above -0.5Â °C. But the freezing of cell developed only after reaching 5Â °C. Unfrozen state of cell and its environment occurs due to the protective solutes super cooling and freezing point depression. External medium impulsively induce ice seeding formation between 5Â °C and 15Â °C, but composition of cell persist in a super cooled and unfrozen state. Extracellular solution remains in unfrozen fraction and that influences the ice formation in external medium. Concentration of solute in extracellular solution rises in respect to the decrease in temperature. So, ice formation developed and encourages probable imbalance between the cell and external solution. Water present inside the cell is in super cooled state than extracellular region; due to the potential imbalance, water migrates to extra cellular region and freezes. Entire event of cell relays over the cooling. Decrease in cool ing induces the dehydration of cell and the intracellular freezing is prohibited. Rapid cooling induces intracellular ice formation as a result of rapid decrease in extra cellular solution than the water diffusing out from the cell. Ice formation inside the cell is certainly lethal (Fuller et al., 2004). INTRACELLULAR ICE NUCLEATION: Homogenous nucleation, seeding by extracellular ice and heterogeneous nucleation are the possible ways IIF. When the rate of cooling decreases, electrolytes concentration on freezing relate to unfrozen section of water. It is classified into intra and extracellular electrolytes. CELL VOLUME DECREASE: Volume decrease whilst freezing induces injury to cells by minor tonicity solution. Decrease in cell volume whilst freezing concerns cell damage. DEHYDRATION THEORIES (Meryman): Inability of cell to shrink osmotically below perspective level whilst it tries to reaches osmotic equilibrium. This is called as minimum volume hypothesis over damage of slow-freezing. CHILLING INJURY: Different cell type reaches damage upon cooling around 0 Â °C without freezing, i.e without ice formation. Damage occurs irreversibly on chilling temperature. If this happens in sperm cells, it is termed as temperature shock. Direct and indirect chilling injuries are the major two categories of chilling injury. These injuries are expressed upon lower temperature and it is termed as cold shock. It depends over the rate of cooling. Indirect chilling injury occurs on exposure to reduced temperature for a prolonged time and it is independent of rate of cooling. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish cold shock and indirect chilling injury (Fuller et al., 2004). TZ p2 The above plot is reproduced from the material belongs to (Muldrew et al., 2004). COLD SHOCK: Cells become sensitive to cold shock as it rapidly cooled at low temperature for long time. Viability of cell and its severity of injury are relays over the rapid or slow cooling. Also this cold shock s not depends on warming rate but it depends on rate and duration of cooling (Tsai et al., 2009). Membrane permeability is injured upon rapid cooling and chance of reversibility is available for some cases. Addition of specific compounds and cell former cooling condition influences the response of cell. Thermotropic activity of lipid membrane is suspected to identify the injury due to cold shock. Lipid phase transitions of cell membrane influence the injury of cold shock in many species. INDIRECT CHILLING INJURY: Long exposure of biological materials at low temperature causes indirect chilling injury and this injury is cooling rate independent. Lipids and proteins are changed by means of its activity and structure. Eg: changes in enzyme activity and protein denaturation. Also the metabolic pathway and enzyme linked reactions face some alterations as the co-ordination is decreased according to the decrease in temperature rate (Fuller et al., 2004). ROLE OF CRYOPROTECTANT: Cryoprotectant enhances the dehydration process formerly formation of external ice. The activity of water is greatly reduced during the lack of water loss. By reducing the effect of salts, it acts as a protective influence on structure of the cell. Freezing protocol progression needs consistent method to detect the cell viability (Fuller et al., 2004). Cryopretectant may be a chemical additive that is added to the solution before freezing to ensure the high survival rate after post thawing. Role of cryoprotectant is to support and protect the survival of biological material upon cooling to hypothermic temperature for long duration of time. Property of an effective cryoprotectant is high solubility with decreased toxicity. Cryoprotectant can be classified according to chemical class and mode of action. Each categorized cryoprotectant plays a vital role upon thawing and cooling. Freezing point depression is promoted by permeating cryoprotectant due to the presence of electrolytes. Non-permeating cryoprotectant promotes decreased formation of ice crystal upon freezing by prior dehydration of biological material. Reduced deviation of volumes and solutes damage concentration is enhanced by the cryoprotectant. Eg: DMSO (Fuller et al., 2004). Cell protection is also achieved by fluctuating formation of ice crystal into harmless shape and size during thawing and freezing. It is necessary to look the toxicity of cryoprotectant over cells and its permeability. High concentration of cryoprotectant itself injured. Direct exposure of cryoprotectant with membranes and proteins induce ionic pumps disruption over trans membrane and also causes enzyme inactivation. But more amount of cryoprotectant in vitrification ensures viscous and amorphous medium. The possible approach to overcome this problem is achieved by using mixture of cryoprotectant at definite concentration (Tsai et al., 2008 and Fuller et al., 2004). SIMILARITY AND DIFFERENCES OF VITRFICATION AND CONTROLLED SLOW COOLING: -ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTEGES: Effective vitrification demands enormous sample cooling and solute with high concentration with combination of cryoprotectant (Bielanski, and Lalonde., 2009). Successful vitrification was enhanced in 1985 to cryopreserve the mouse embryo and this technique is also effectively applied to preserve the blood cells, tissues, embryo and oocyte of Drosophila melanogaster, Asparagus officinalis plant as well as embryos of numerous mammalians. Cryopreservation of mammalian system report entails the success achieved through the technique of controlled freezing. However in the case of fruit fly, vitrification occupies a success where the controlled freezing failed. Efficient vitrification technique relays on an optimization of some specific steps that includes appropriate composition and concentration of provided vitrification solution with specific cooling/warming environments. Also this technique induces equilibration of living cells present and to dilute the cells present in the vitrification solution (Fuller et al., 2004). A series course of freezing and warming of bovine in-vitro matured, fertilized and cultured blastocysts using electron microscope (EM) grids (A-F) ( Reproduced from park et al., 1999) The use of slow cooling includes several ranges of rates of cooling when we compared vitrification with rapid and ultra rapid cooling. The ultimate goal of both techniques is to produce a glass like state of cells to prevent the damage caused by formation of ice crystal upon cooling (El-Danasouri, and Selman., 2005). At first, vitrification procedure involves lengthy pre-equilibrium procedure. Currently, combination of penetrating and non-penetrating solutes is used with non-toxic property with several ranges of cooling rates. Both the technique result in successful cryopreservation of embryos and oocytes of humans (Borini, and Coticchio., 2009). Even these procedures resulted good, slow cooling technique applied for cryopreservation of oocytes shows very less successive rates when compared to vitrification. Vitrification acts as a promising technique in many areas in reproductive technology, even though its positive rates need to establish further. Vitrification is an easy procedure and that consumes less time duration. Also this vitrification technique is safer and cheaper when compared to control slow cooling. ( Kuleshova, L.L. and Lopata, A., 2002). Cryopreservation of cell faces relative damage due to cooling and thawing. Mostly damage occurs whilst storing the cells at hypothermic conditions. Maintaining healthier cells for further use are very essential and we need to prevent it from genetic drift and contamination. To stop the biological action of the cell and to maintain that in its preserved state is the role of cryostorage. In fluid system, molecular motion is achieved via temperature (Fuller et al., 2004). The molecular motion get reduce according to the decrease in temperature. Biological species are designed to be viable and active at maximal temperature but it lost its activity at hypothermic condition. At that instance, lipid phase transition, structural and enzymatic damage and de-polymerization occurs (Kiefer et al., 2005). Major damaging phenomenon upon cooling are: Intracellular ice crystallisation and osmotic damage. Chilling sensitivity or cold shock leads the cell to death at the temperature below 0Â °C. These effects differ from one cell type to another. Bacteria and some viruses can sustain in 60 degree but the holding temperature for most of the biological sample is below -130Â °C (Fuller et al., 2004). Conventional cryopreservation method is established to overcome the formation of ice whilst cooling. Formation of ice crystals are avoided by vitrification via its usage of concentrated solution and rapid cooling. This vitrification method contains a potential advantage as it is rapid and this technique does not require rate cooling equipment. Vitrification results in good survival rate of preserved oocytes and embryos. Cryopreservation widely applicable to retain genetic resources and protect the endemic species (Tsai et al., 2010). Vitrification acts as an alternative method to slow cooling. This provides higher survival of pregnancy range and embryo viability. This vitrification acts as a suitable procedure in infertility clinics. In this, cryopreservation of numerous embryos is maintained within short period and thus it acts as a simple method. Still, less number of controlled studies and childbirths are concerned over vitrification technique. Multiple pregnancy risk associated w ith freezing using controlled slow cooling is restricted using vitrification. Also it works with high efficacy (Kuc et al., 2010 and Trounson and Mohr.,1983). Vitrification acts as an attractive cryopreservation method when compared with controlled slow cooling technique. In contrast to slow cooling method, this vitrification technique is precise and in this each and every step is visualized. Vitrification reduces the time duration of exposure to sub-physiological environments. It requires only less than 10 minutes carrying out while slow cooling takes nearly two hours. Vitrification is simpler and it does not need costly programmable freezing equipment. In some cases, chilling injury also prevented by vitrification (Fuller et al., 2004). Needle immersed vitrification requires less concentrated and minimum volume of vtrification solution. Maximize cooling rate, reduce toxicity of vitrification solution with low volume of less concentration cryopreservation. In vitrification, upon freezing, only numerous ice crystals are formed and so less mechanical disruption results by ice crystal (Wang et al., 2008). Vitrification technique is accompanied without the withdrawal of more amount of water. So, less chemical damage only exist. But the chemical damage due to cryoprotectant is a complicated matter. ( long). Common variation held between vitrification and controlled slow freezing is due to the numerous additions of cryoprotectants. Implementation of maximum equilibration condition and dilution are expected from the vitrification media. It is necessary to use low toxic agents in the vitrification solution. To achieve an efficient vitrification, formulation of 2 things over the vitrification technique are essential. 1. physicochemical properties : Concentrated vitrification solution induce glassy solid formation and it helps to devoid of crystallization whilst cooling. 2. cyoprotectant: using low toxic cryoprotectant with an intrinsic permeability. Vitrification protects the cell from ice formation while cryopreservation.Both the vitrification and slow cooling are used to preserve human oocytes (Fuller et al., 2004). In case of human ES cell cryopreservation, improved efficiency is noted in vitrification than in traditional cryopreservation (Zhou et al. 2004 and Peng-Fei et al., 2006). Analysis of colonies after vitrification yields rapid growth and differentiation when compared with slow freezing technique. Vitrification acts as a promising approach to cryopreserve the multi cellular tissue. Even, vitrification achieved certain merits; it is associated with several problems. In the state of vitrified, glass is susceptible to cracking. Care is essential on warming to neglect the formation of ice. Heat transfer rate occurring during vitrification process may vary depends on device.Vitrification include the rapid cooling protocol and it is difficult to maintain at certain temperature with the available equipment. Very rapid and even rewarming requires avoid of devitrification. During slow cooling, increase solute concentration to glass transition needs while prevent by cooling slow enough to allow the cells to dehydrate to protect intracellular supercooling (Youssry et al., 2008). Vitrification requires higher and potentially cytotoxic concentration of cryoprotective agents for one hour before its immersion into liquid nitrogen at specific temperature. To reduce its toxicity, pre equilibrium performed at 4Â °C. It allows the direct visualizaton of cell by the operator (El-Danasouri, and Selman., 2005) Eventhough this vitrification entails with meritful approaches, this technique still been experimental. Also, it requires more additives to reach and it is potentially cytotoxic. This technique highly depends on operator. Timing takes to cover all the steps and it is critical. In contrast to slow freezing, this vitrification needs enough level of training. If the vitrified solution stars to devitrify, (crystalise into ice), viability will be lost. This happens when thawing or extended time of storage persists (Fuller et al., 2004). Viability of vitrified samples is not certain for lengthy period of time but in case of slow cooling, preserved cells can be viable for many years, even to thousands of years. Direct exposure of cryogen can be achieved by fast cooling. As it is so, this process may carry possible contamination of organism from the liquid nitrogen. So, this process cannot be applicable for therapeutic cells. Vitrification technique is applied only to cooled cell suspensions in minor quantities. This method is not projected to apply in large quantities like cryovials, matrix tubes, bags, microtitre plates etc. Quality control measurement via this vitrification technique is made to be impossible as we need to take experiments for all straws. (Fahy et al., 2004) Usually the slow cooling procedure is used in infertility centers. But it is associated with documented limitations. Also sometimes, it damages sensitive parts of the cell ( eg- zona pellucida) and it induce biological changes. Because of these changes, we will get a depleted outcomes. To overcome this, Modifying cryopreservation procedure is attained- freezing and thawing by polymers. This also enhanced with changing the time duration of the cooling protocol and it is looked as same as the path to simplify and fast up cryobanking procedures to get beneficial results. As the vitrification technique connected with some problems, it acts as a challenging technique for reproductive medicine. The slow freezing technique serves as an effective method for humans too (Mandelbaum, J., 2000). An alternative method for cryopreservation was developed and it is called as vitrification. Comparative study has been taken between controlled slow cooling and vitrification techniques with patients undertaking controlled ovarian stimulation in GnRH agonist to determine efficacy. The rate of pregnancy after vitrification reveals more than higher successive rate than result achieved via slow cooling. Efficacy of vitrification yields (50.4%), and slow cooling results in (25.9%) successive rates.Human ovarian tissue also cryopreserved (Noriko et al 2009) Both cryopreservation as well as cryostorage contains budding advantages, especially in invitro fertilization. Ultimate goal of cryopreservation is to achieve maximum persistence rate and sustainability of biological system after thawing. In slow cooling procedure, clinically satisfactory result has not been attained. Slow cooling procedure needs costly equipment and also it is time consuming. One of a significant advantage of vitrification process is its tendency to form any ice crystals during both cooling and warming. In contrast, its limitation held in toxic effects due to addition of cryoprotectants and contamination via liquid nitrogen. In slow cooling technique, toxicity of cryoprotectant is relatively less. But many research outcomes supports the vitrification process rather than slow cooling in fertility treatment(Tsai et al., 2010). Blastocyst cells can be preserved by both the cryopreservation techniques. Among these, vitrification promotes increasing chance for future development. A reliable advancement is needed for vitrification to enhance the preservation of supernumerary blastocysts. Unsatisfactory results have been produced for the blastocyst preservation through slow freezing method. Vitrification acts as an alternative principle which is allied with capability of inducing more pregnancy rate and increased survival of embryo upon cryopreservation (Trounson and Mohr ., 1983 and Fuller et al., 2004). CONCLUSION: Approach taken by Kolibianakis et al results in the comparative analysis of both vitrification and controlled slow cooling. And its outcome provides similar results are given by both of these techniques. But comparatively, post thawing survival frequency is better in vitrification than slow cooling. Finally, they suggested that the there is no link between the vitrification process in giving high rate of pregnancy but it displays the successful post thawing survival both in the cleavage stage and in the blastocyst stage (Youssry et al., 2008 and Porcu et al 2000). According to Balaban et al survival rate of human 3 day embryo preservation reported the percentage of survival rate by vitrication as 94.8% whereas slow cooling provides 88.7%. (Kuc et al., 2010). Vitrification study over the embryo in cleavage stage testified 80% of survival rate and 22-35% of pregnancy rate. These results are more significant than the slow cooling procedure. Although the two main approaches of cryopreser vation contains signficant results, Vitrification gains more positive outcomes. Even in both the cases, limitations persist. All of its limitations can be always overcome by its positive side.

Chanel Essay -- essays research papers

CHANEL  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gabrielle ‘Coco’ Chanel was born in Saumur, France in 1884. Vogue Magazine referred to her as â€Å"the couturier who takes no account of fashion, who pursues her own faultlessly elegant line in the quiet confidence that fashion will come back to her - and sure enough it always does.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chanel began designing heavily during the 1920s. Her first outfits were wool jerseys, and were very simple. She became famous for the simple look of her extremely classy outfits. Chanel stayed away from the vivid colors of many of the other designers of the time. Instead, she used blacks, navy, and tan almost exclusively. Unlike many designers who primarily made dresses and suits, Chanel also designed jackets, hats, and costume jewelry. When presenting a show, she did not have to accessorize her models with designs from other houses. Chanel designed well into the 1930s, but was forced to close her house during the years of World War Two. In 1954, she was able to reopen, and she designed until she died in 1971.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chanel was one of the most influential designers of the twentieth century with a non-conformist and classical streak. Coco designed the definitive women’s suit, wore masculine clothes, sported a cropped haircut and flaunted a suntan when it was considered to be an symbol of the working class. In 1916, she outraged the fashion industry by using jersey at a time when it was strictly associated with... Chanel Essay -- essays research papers CHANEL  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gabrielle ‘Coco’ Chanel was born in Saumur, France in 1884. Vogue Magazine referred to her as â€Å"the couturier who takes no account of fashion, who pursues her own faultlessly elegant line in the quiet confidence that fashion will come back to her - and sure enough it always does.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chanel began designing heavily during the 1920s. Her first outfits were wool jerseys, and were very simple. She became famous for the simple look of her extremely classy outfits. Chanel stayed away from the vivid colors of many of the other designers of the time. Instead, she used blacks, navy, and tan almost exclusively. Unlike many designers who primarily made dresses and suits, Chanel also designed jackets, hats, and costume jewelry. When presenting a show, she did not have to accessorize her models with designs from other houses. Chanel designed well into the 1930s, but was forced to close her house during the years of World War Two. In 1954, she was able to reopen, and she designed until she died in 1971.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chanel was one of the most influential designers of the twentieth century with a non-conformist and classical streak. Coco designed the definitive women’s suit, wore masculine clothes, sported a cropped haircut and flaunted a suntan when it was considered to be an symbol of the working class. In 1916, she outraged the fashion industry by using jersey at a time when it was strictly associated with...

Analysis of Political Theory Essay

There are two political theories that I combined and will implement if I were to be placed as the highest-ranking official of the country. These are the theories of Immanuel Kant and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. I chose to unite the two theories because both of them, as I was reading through its contents, had the biggest impact on me than all the other theories I researched for. The joined theories would build up my ideal state as a leader of the country so that I may be able to take the people to a better state of life, in my innocent opinion as part of this country’s youth. First, allow me to discuss to you Immanuel Kant’s political philosophy. His approach to politics favored classical republicanism. The doctrine of Rechtsstaat is Kant’s biggest contribution in the philosophy of law and politics. According to this doctrine, the power of the state is limited in order to protect citizens from the arbitrary exercise of power. In a Rechtsstaat, the citizens share legally based civil liberties. It is a constitutional state in which the exercise of governmental power is constrained by law. It is often tied with the Anglo-American rule of law. Now, what is the rule of law? It is a legal maxim that suggests that governmental decisions be made by applying known legal principles. Aristotle one quoted, â€Å"Law should govern†. It implies that every citizen is subject to the law. It stands in contrast to the idea that a ruler is above the law, for example by divine right. Going back to Immanuel Kant’s philosophy, he also supported the separation of powers of the executive, legislative and judicative branches of government. The executive and the judicative are bound by law, while the legislative is bound by constitutional principles. Rechtsstaat also requires transparency  of state acts and the requirement of providing a reason for all state acts. The doctrine also demands for a hierarchy of laws and the requirement of clarity and definiteness. Now, the world has indeed seen the applications and implementations of the Rechtsstaat through Russia’s legal system. The  Russian legal system, born out of transformations in the 19th century under the reforms of Emperor  Alexander II, is based primarily upon the German legal tradition. It was from here that Russia borrowed a doctrine of  Rechtsstaat, which literally translates as  legal state. The concept of â€Å"legal state† is a fundamental (but undefined) principle that appears in the very first dispositive provision of Russia’s  post-Communist constitution: â€Å"The Russian Federation – Russia – constitutes a democratic federative legal state with a republican form of governance. † Similarly, the very first dispositive provision of Ukraine’s Constitution declares: â€Å"Ukraine is a sovereign and independent, democratic, social, legal state. † The effort to give meaning to the expression â€Å"legal state† is anything but theoretical. Valery Zorkin, President of the Constitutional Court of Russia, wrote in 2003: Becoming a legal state has long been our ultimate goal, and we have certainly made serious progress in this direction over the past several years. However, no one can say now that we have reached this destination. Such a legal state simply cannot exist without a lawful and just society. Here, as in no other sphere of our life, the state reflects the level of maturity reached by society. Rechtsstaat has also approached Russia’s constitutional economics. The Russian concept of legal state adopted many elements of  constitutional economics. One of the founders of constitutional economics, James M. Buchanan, the 1986 recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Science, argues that, in the framework of constitutional government, any governmental intervention and regulation has been based on three assumptions. First, every failure of the  market economy to function smoothly and perfectly can be corrected by governmental intervention. Second, those holding political office and manning the bureaucracies are altruistic upholders of the  public interest, unconcerned with their own personal economic well-being. And, third, changing the responsibilities of government towards more intervention and control will not profoundly and perversely affect the social and economic order. Some Russian researchers are supporting an idea that, in the 21st century, the concept of the legal state has become not only a legal but also an economic concept – at least for Russia and many other transitional and developing countries. Let us now move on to Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s political theory. His most important work is The Social Contract, which outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical republican. The treatise begins with the dramatic opening lines, â€Å"Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they. † Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom. According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning their claims of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the authority of the  general will  of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the law. Although Rousseau argues that  sovereignty  (or the power to make the laws) should be in the hands of the people, he also makes a sharp distinction between the sovereign and the  government. The government is composed of magistrates, charged with implementing and enforcing the general will. The â€Å"sovereign† is the rule of law, ideally decided on by  direct democracy  in an assembly. Under a monarchy, however, the real sovereign is still the law. Rousseau was opposed to the idea that the people should exercise sovereignty via a  representative assembly. France could not meet Rousseau’s criterion of an ideal state because it was too big. Much subsequent controversy about Rousseau’s work has hinged on disagreements concerning his claims that citizens constrained to obey the general will are thereby rendered free: The notion of the general will is wholly central to Rousseau’s theory of political legitimacy. †¦ It is, however, an unfortunately obscure and controversial notion. Some commentators see it as no more than the dictatorship of the proletariat or the tyranny of the urban poor (such as may perhaps be seen in the French Revolution). Such was not Rousseau’s meaning. This is clear from the  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Discourse on Political Economy†, where Rousseau emphasizes that the general will exists to protect individuals against the mass, not to require them to be sacrificed to it. He is, of course, sharply aware that men have selfish and sectional interests which will lead them to try to oppress others. It is for this reason that loyalty to the good of all alike must be a supreme (although not exclusive) commitment by everyone, not only if a truly general will is to be heeded but also if it is to be formulated successfully in the first place†. French revolutionaries read the works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. This would suggest that his philosophy was one of the proponents that sparked the French Revolution among the commoners. In brief, Rousseau believed in the natural goodness of man; that humans were corrupted by the greed and competition of civilization. He believed in a social utopia, of humans returning to natural harmony, being made free of vices and sharing a natural equality and a general will. These ideas appealed to many people, including some of the people instrumental in the events leading to the French Revolution, such as the oath at the Tennis Court. In a country where a wealthy minority indulged themselves while hundreds of thousands suffered from severe poverty and inflation, people yearned for a basic equality, natural or government ordained. Many felt that if the general will (or the will of the people) was for change, that the current government was expected to make compromises. The First Estate of the French government was against these changes, the Second Estate was to some extent and later cast its lot in with the Third Estate. Later the idea of a utopian government changed to ‘the will of the people’ (although how successful this was carried out can be debated, in both France and the U. S. ) Maximillien Robespierre, who played an important part in the middle to later events in the Revolution and was one of the architects of the Terror, was deeply influenced in his youth by Rousseau’s writings. My report would end at this, since only this stuff is what is asked of us. But if you would ask me, I wouldn’t agree to all things mentioned by the two philosophers. I, of course, would make a few reforms here and there. For example, the abandonment of our natural rights as said in The Social Contract. In the contemporary world, one would want to forget about their natural right for general will. Sure, the idea of general will sounds very convenient, but if you think about it, it’s not worth giving up your natural rights for.

Gender Bias in Everyday Life Essay - 981 Words

In the modern United States, biases are found in almost every social institution. These discriminatory practices hurt everyone involved. One of the more evident of these is discrimination based on someone’s gender. Gender bias, also known as sexism, refers to a full range of attitudes, preferences, laws, taboos and behaviors that differentiate and discriminates against the members of either sex. These may be the position of male dominance and female subjugation in modern society. It may also be in the form of sexual stereotypes between men and women, which are commonly experienced or encountered in employment, especially on the positions they occupy and their earnings or income. A final instance where discrimination is faced is within the†¦show more content†¦It is not true; however, that all males have been winners in these historical struggles. While boys and men benefit to some extent from patriarchal relations, they are also damaged by the disciplining practices n eeded to reproduce misogynist relations. And men and women have different uses, such as a male lifting heavy weights and females singing at the upper register. (Goldberg, 10) Most men and women in every society realize this intuitively. Anthropologists have written at lengths about the areas in which women are unquestionably superior to men. It is through these abilities that the worlds women have always fulfilled themselves, just as men have emphasized their singular abilities. (Crane-Seeber and Crane pg 218) While women are more commonly affected by eating disorders, more than a million of the opposite sex battles the illness every day (nationaleatingdisorders.org). Men are told to be muscular and strong, so as to support themselves and their families. Men are also told that feelings should not be shared, and to give in, is to become â€Å"womanly†. While gender discrimination is illegal in most educational institutions, it still occurs. Discrimination can occur in subtle w ays that are not easily identified. Some of the more noticeable ones, however, include differences in admission requirements, differences in educational programs and activities offered, and sexual harassment.Show MoreRelatedGender Identity : Gender And Masculinity Essay1509 Words   |  7 PagesGender plays an enormous role in every society around the world. There are debates about whether gender is defined by strictly biological characteristics or social attributes. Others argue that gender is a spectrum, rather than the dichotomy of male and female. Masculinity and femininity are sets of attributes, roles and behaviors that are associated with men and boys and girls and women, respectively. Both masculinity and femininity have specific traits that are both biologically and socially definedRead MoreIs Gender Bias For College Aid?1105 Words   |  5 Pagesfind that there was gender bias in college aid. For example we thought that men would get more sports scholarships than women and women would get more STEM scholarships than men This, we thought, was because the colleges were trying to draw in genders to certain fields. We thought that males would get more scholarships because colleges want more male athletes and that women would get more STEM scholarships because they want to draw more women into the STEM fields. Gender Bias? Contrary to our originalRead MoreFemales Need A Solid Knowledge And Understanding Of Stem Subjects1336 Words   |  6 Pagessciences and the arts. In today’s modern age, it is disappointing to still find gender bias in any facet of our society. It is even more disappointing to find it in our schools. Women are constantly combating gender bias in everyday life, and school communities are affecting the careers of women by pushing them further away from STEM subjects. Girls are afraid of their own abilities. Why have we allowed this to happen? Gender Inequality has become prevalent in today’s society, due to our schools lackingRead MoreArticles from English 102 Reader1662 Words   |  7 Pagesliked women and it never was a sexuality issue but she always knew deep down that she wanted to be a woman. Laura was the name her mother said she would have given her if she was a girl. Laura has a daughter and a wife and now is finally living a happy life. I liked this article because I was happy Laura finally is happy with herself which has great feeling. It kind of makes me think of the back lash she must because it’s not â€Å"society acceptable† but sometimes you have to be a rebel to society and doRead MoreAfrican American Stereotypes1256 Words   |  6 PagesAfrican American IAT George, Janel A: Stereotype and School Pushout: Race, Gender, and Discipline Disparities DESCRIPTION: George focuses on implicit bias largely in the educational sector and how that effects African Americans with the emphasis on specifically the black female. Educationally facilities tend to apply restrictions regarding disciplines on a sort of equality across the board basis; however, the failure of recognition is that this method is not effective and results in long term psychologicalRead MoreApplication Of Microaggression Theory Study Caste Based Discrimination1558 Words   |  7 Pagescountries, microaggression theory has been explored to study racial and gender discrimination, interpersonal behaviors, and biased attitude in higher education settings. The term â€Å"microaggression† is derived from â€Å"racial microaggression† which was coined by Chester Pierce in 1969, a professor of psychiatry and education at Harvard. Pierce defined racial microaggression as â€Å"offensive mechanism† (Pierce, 1970) in everyday life to communicate a range of covert and overt racial insults aimed at AfricanRead MoreThis Paper Will Discuss And React To The Constitutional1319 Words   |  6 Pagesconstitutional laws that exist today and have progressed throughout the years regarding gender variants and their human rights in the workplace. The overview of acts and occupational differences will mainly be focused on Australia and the United States through comparing and contrasting their specific regulations and the average work gender variants choose based on the individual’s societal views. In reality, gender variants/people of the LBGTQIA committee are affected significantly by discriminationRead MoreAp Psych Outline16 83 Words   |  7 Pages 1: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science Outline The Need for Psychological Science Two phenomena- hindsight bias and judgmental overconfidence- illustrate why we can’t rely solely on intuition and common sense. The Limits of Intuition and Common Sense Our intuition can lead us astray. Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias Hindsight bias- The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) CommonRead MorePrejudice in the Workplace637 Words   |  3 Pagesappears in the workplace, based on gender, ethnicity, cultural differences, religion or skin color, it can cause serious problems and hurtful feelings. This paper offers scholarly information on prejudice in the workplace and relates as to how prejudice can be reduced. Prejudice in the Workplace Author Lilia Cortina writes in the peer-reviewed Academy of Management Review that while there are specific laws, policies and taboos against blatant racial and gender bias, that does not stop some individualsRead MoreStereotypes And Stereotypes Of Stereotypes1400 Words   |  6 Pagesrelated to culture and religion, but also exist in forms related to gender. As seen in the movie Crash, stereotypes falsely label individuals in society. The labels created by stereotypes influence interactions individuals make with one and other. These interactions can be hostile or warm depending on the stereotypes society believes of the group the individual identifies him or her self with. Stereotypical ideas influence everyday life as individuals encounter various people of various backgrounds.